gloatsneer said:
I'm also interested in this Jósteinn, whom I have never heard about. Isn't the historical consensus that it was Olaf Tryggvason or some Scandinavian king leading the Vikings?
Glad that you asked!
Virtually nothing is known for sure about the viking army present at Maldon. Some speculate it was indeed led by Olaf Tryggvason, who would later become king of Norway, while others favour Svein Forkbeard. I find both theories unlikely. Both are known to have operated in the area of Essex in the early 990s but there's little to no suggestion that any of them were present at the battlefield. The theory that Olaf was the leader seems to stem from MS A of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:
993 - On this year Unlaf [Olaf] came with 93 ships to Stane and pillaged there and then went to Sandwich and likewise from there to Ipswich and they overran all of it, and likewise with Maldon, and then Byrhtnoð ealdorman came against them with his fyrd and fought against them, and they killed the ealdorman there and they held the battlefield.
However, that's pretty obviously a conflation of events that appear in two separate entries elsewhere, as in MS E:
991 – On this year Ipswich was sacked, and very soon after that ealdorman Brihtnoð [Byrhtnoð] was killed at Maldon. And on that year it was determined for the first time that tribute should be paid to the Danes for the great terror that they incited along the shore. That first time it was 10,000 pounds. That was the advice of archbishop Siric [Sigeric].
994 – On this year Anlaf [Olaf] and Swegen [Svein] came to London on the Nativity of Mary with 93 ships, and they fought vigorously against that town and they also tried to set it on fire, but they suffered more harm and pain there than they ever thought any citizens would do to them […] and they departed from there and caused more harm than any Viking army had done before in terms of burning and pillaging and slaughtering, either on the shore of Essex or in Kent, Sussex and Hampshire, and immediately afterwards they captured horses and rode as wide as they wanted and did unspeakable evils. Then the king and his counsellors decided that they should send to them and promise them tribute and provisions, in exchange of which they would cease their pillaging, and then they did so. And then the whole Viking army came to Southampton and took winter quarters there, and they fed from across all the kingdom of Wessex and they were paid 16,000 pounds. Then the king sent bishop Alfheah and ealdorman Æðelweard to king Anlaf, and hostages were given while they went into the ships, and they led Anlaf to the king at Andover with great honour. And king Æðelred received him from the hands of the bishop and he bestowed upon him regal gifts, and then Anlaf promised that he would never again come to England with hostile intentions, and he kept that promise.
There is a peace treaty known among scholars as
II Æthelred and which is associated with these events:
These are the peace terms and stipulations that king Æþelred and all his counsellors have made with the army with which Anlaf [Olaf], Iustin [Jósteinn] and Guðmund [Guðmundr] son of Stegita (Steini?) were.
Most scholars date
II Æthelred to 994, so it would refer to Olaf and Svein's attack on London and subsequent events, which led to Olaf's conversion to Christianity, sponsored by Æthelred. However, a minority believe it may refer to the tribute paid after Maldon, in 991. A case can be made because
II Æthelred doesn't mention Svein, and on the contrary, it mentions a preliminary agreement that archbishop Sigeric, among others, had helped arrange, just as in the ASC entry for 991. Furthermore, it makes no reference to Olaf's conversion.
II Æthelred specifies the sum paid to the Vikings as 22,000 pounds, which doesn't agree with the ASC figures for either 991 or 994.
John of Worcester, in the early 12th century, compiled a series of chronicles to produce his Latin
Chronicon ex chronicis, which relies mostly on the ASC but is believed to have used sources that are now lost. In his entry for 991, he writes:
In this same year, the Danes, led by Iustinus [Jósteinn] and Guthmundus [Guðmundr], the son of Steita [Steini?], ravaged Ipswich. Not long afterwards, Brihtnothus [Byrhtnoð], the vigorous ealdorman of the East Saxons, fought a battle with them near Maldon; but after an infinite number had been killed on both sides, the ealdorman himself fell.
As you can see, he's seemingly adapting the ASC (but not MS A). It could be that he took the information about Jósteinn and Guðmundr from
II Æthelred, or that a now lost manuscript of the ASC included their names. At any rate, he omitted Olaf. Maybe that was just a mistake on his part, but since most scholars don't believe Olaf was there in the first place, I think it's reasonable to go with it, with the understanding that this is, at most, an educated guess, and that the majority opinion is that
II Æthelred was written in 994 and therefore that we have no particular reason to believe Jósteinn and Guðmundr were leading the Vikings in 991. On the other hand, it's likely that at least some of the Vikings participated in both campaigns, since Essex was under constant threat in the final decade of the 10th century, and Olaf may have arrived later to join a pre-existing army. At any rate, having low-key characters like Jósteinn and Guðmundr leading the Vikings, if it is indeed wrong, would be "less wrong" than having a high-profile character like Olaf Tryggvason himself. If nothing else, we're just following John of Worcester, which should carry enough authority on its own!
Not much is known about Justin-Jósteinn, but at least there's something. In the
Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, there is a Jósteinn who happens to be the maternal uncle of Olaf Tryggvason. Nothing of what he does in that saga can really be linked to Maldon or to the ravaging of Essex, but still, this is a Jósteinn who was a close enough associate of Olaf to appear alongside him in
II Æthelred, and a kinsman fits the bill pretty well. According to the
Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, Jósteinn was the son of Eiríkr Bjóðaskalli, so there we have the full name of the Viking leader: Jósteinn Eiríksson.