Best-dressed Warrior

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Papal States during the Italian Unification

:arrow: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States_under_Pope_Pius_IX

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Heavy Roman Cavalry: Cataphractarii & Clibanarii,
1st Century BC to 5th Century AD

Early Armored Cavalrymen

(1) Romano-Egyptian heavily armoured cavalryman, 31 BC.

This figure is copied from part of the famous monument to a
senior naval officer of the time of Marcus Antonius, now in the
Vatican museum, and from the Mausoleum of the Titeci near
Lake Fucinus. He probably represents a member of the
kataphraktoi of the Eastern allies of Cleopatra and M. Antonius,
or perhaps even a member of their bodyguard. Note the
helmet with wide cheek-guards partly protecting the face; the
thorax stadios (‘muscled’ or anatomical) cuirass; the shield of
scutum type, and the three javelins. Hidden here, his right arm
would be covered with articulated ‘hoop’ armour.

(2) Romano-Thracian cataphract; Chatalka, c. AD 75−100

The armoured cavalryman from the Chatalka burial in Bulgaria
may have worn what Arwidson calls ‘belt armour’ – a
combination of iron plates, scales and splints in the Iranian
tradition. The neck is protected by a thick iron gorget, following
the Thracian–Macedonian style; it was made in two pieces
connected by a strap, and the outer surface was originally
painted red. Surviving individual rings show that it was worn
over a separate ringmail collar. Note his magnificent masked
helmet (see reconstructions on pages 8-9). The Chatalka burial
also included a beautiful sword of Chinese type.

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Early Units, 2nd Century AD

(1) Sarmatian cataphract; Adygeia, c. 110 AD

Archaeological finds at the Gorodoskoy farm site on the
ancient Pontic steppes in Adygeia (Russian Federation)
revealed the impressive armour of a true Sarmatian
cataphractus, a prototype for the Roman armoured contarius.
He wears a segmented iron spangenhelm with an attached
scale aventail; the skull consists of four vertical pieces with the
space between filled with horizontal strips, as depicted on
Trajan’s Column. The height of the occupant of the grave was
about 1.7m (5ft 6in), and the superb ringmail coat was up to
1.5m long (4ft 11in). At the top it fastened with buckles to the
scale aventail. At the bottom it was divided into two flaps,
allowing the wearer to sit on a horse with ease; the flaps were
wrapped around the legs like trousers, being fastened in this
position above the knee and on the shins with wide ringmail
strips. Because of the poor preservation of the recovered
armour the length of the sleeves is not clear, but given the
degree of easy movement that would be required to wield the
swords and javelins found in such graves we assume that they
ended at the elbows. He carries a long spatha-type sword, but
his main weapon is the very long contus sarmaticus.

(2) Decurio of Ala Prima Gallorum et Pannoniorum
catafractata, 2nd century AD

The reconstruction of this junior officer is based on the studies
of Gamber. He proposes that the chamfron found at Newstead,
Scotland, and other recovered fragments of leather horse
armour decorated with rivets, give an idea of the appearance
of the mounts used by the early Roman cataphracts. The
decurion’s personal armour is reconstructed from Pannonian
gravestones and archaeological finds; the troopers also could
wear decorated helmets like this Trajanic or Hadrianic example
from Brza Palanka, and bronze ocreae (greaves). We have
completed him with full-length ‘hooped’ articulated arm
protection (the galerus), a cavalry spatha and the contus.

(3) Praefectus of an Ala catafractata, late 2nd century AD

This unit commander is largely reconstructed from the horseman
balteus decoration from Trecenta in the Veneto region of northeast
Italy. The officers of the cataphracts wore beautiful decorated
helmets of Hellenic taste, here copied from an open-mask
specimen ex-Axel Guttman collection (AG451). He is wearing a
composite armour formed by a thorax stadios and laminae
vertically disposed around the lower trunk, following the system
of the Iranian ‘belt armour’, and copper-alloy greaves. Gamber
proposes the mace as an officer’s weapon, which may be
confirmed by a specimen found in Dura Europos associated with
cavalry finds, and by the fighting position of the cavalryman
represented on the Trecenta balteus fitting. A regimental
commander’s horse equipment would be suitably magnificent;
decorated pectoral protections with embossed figures, and
partial bronze chamfrons with eye-protectors, have been found
near Brescia, Turin, Vienna and in other localities.

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First Half of the 3rd Century AD

(1) Osrhoenian heavy cavalry sagittarius, army of Severus Alexander; Gallia, AD 235

According to Herodian, Severus Alexander had brought with
him for his Rhine frontier campaign a large force of archers from
the East including from Osrhoene, together with Parthian deserters
and mercenaries. The horse-archers included heavy armoured units;
shooting from well beyond the range of the Germans’ weapons,
they did great execution among their unarmoured adversaries.
We have given this soldier some Roman equipment found in
north German bogs, such as the mask helmet from Thorsbjerg
and the ringmail shirt from Vimose, integrated with clothing and
fittings from Parthian and Hatrene paintings. Iconography
(e.g. synagogue painting from Dura), and graffiti suggest that
the composite bow and a quiver would have been carried slung
from the saddle behind the right leg, convenient for the right hand.

(2) Cataphractarius of Ala Firma catafractaria, army of
Maximinus Thrax; Germania, AD 235

Reconstructed from the stele of the Saluda brothers, he has rich
equipment from the Rhine area: a Mainz-Heddernheim style
helmet; bronze scale armour from Mainz; and highly decorated
greaves embossed with a representation of the god Mars, from
Speyer. His weapons and related fittings (spatha, baldric, contus)
are copied from finds around Mainz, Nydam, and the Vimose
bogs, where a lot of captured Roman equipment relating to the
campaigns of Severus Alexander and Maximinus was found. The
armour of his horse has been reconstructed from the lesserknown
third trapper found in Dura Europos, made of copper-alloy
scales, although the prometopidion (chamfron) is from
Heddernheim. Under it the horse wears the equine harness from
Nydam, including a brown leather muzzle with a bronze boss and
fastened with bridle-chains to the rings of the bit.

(3) Clibanarius of a Numerus Palmyrenorum; Dura Europos,
mid-3rd century AD

This ‘super-heavy’ cavalryman is reconstructed from the
famous clibanarius graffito at Dura Europos (Tower 17). Note
his conical mask helmet, and laminated armour covering
torso, legs and arms. The limb defences consisted mainly of
plates overlapping upwards, as required to throw off enemy
spears running up the left arm, unprotected by a shield.
Composite scale-and-plate armour similar to Iranian or
Palmyrene models, as portrayed in the graffito, covers the
trunk. Thigh protection was often associated with greaves,
and was found at Dura made of copper alloy and lined with
linen. His mount is stronger than the usual Arab breeds, and is
protected by the iron-scale trapper – described in the text as
number (2) – found at Dura.

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Second Half of the 3rd Century AD

(1) Roman clibanarius, Dura Europos, AD 256

Reconstructed after the finds from Dura, he and his mount are
fully armoured in iron and bronze (copper alloy). The openmasked
helmet of Heddernheim typology, whose fragments
were found at Dura, is a very rare variant with double protomes
in the form of eagles; it finds parallels only in a similar helmet
formerly in the Axel Guttman collection, and on late Roman
coins. The iron ringmail shirt shows rows of bronze rings
trimming the ends of the sleeves and the skirt, and is worn in
combination with an articulated arm-guard (galerus) of
laminated iron plates. Each thigh is protected with a redlacquered
leather παραμηρίδιος (thigh-guard) as found in
Dura; this had provision for laces to be fastened around the
thigh, and extended from the waist to below the knee, below
which the man wears bronze greaves. His main weapon is
again the contus, this time carried without a shield, and for
close work a mace is slung from the saddle.

(2) Draconarius of an Ala cataphractariorum; army of Galerius, late 3nd century

This standard-bearer is reconstructed from the Arch of Galerius.
The equipment of the catafractarii on this monument shows
the employment of both ‘ridge’ and segmented helmets,
typologically similar to specimens from Kipchak and Kabardino-
Balkarie. The lamellar copper-alloy cuirass incorporates
decorated iron plates fastening it on the chest, and is worn over
a padded thoracomacus furnished with two layers of thick
pteryges. Note the employment of high boots, the Egyptianmade
tunic decorated with three sleeve stripes (loroi), and the
military sagum cloak. His draco is copied from the Niederbieber
specimen; the Arch of Galerius carvings represent this standard
carried by cataphracts charging against the Persians.

(3) Roman cataphractarius of Ala I Iovia cataphractaria;
Nubian borders, AD 295

Reconstruction from the Roman statue today in the Museum
of Nubia at Aswan, which probably represents a trooper of this
unit created by Diocletian (r. 284−305) and stationed to
safeguard the provincial borders of Aegyptus. The squamae
covering his body, arms and legs echo the armour of the
Rhoxolani heavy cavalry depicted on Trajan’s Column. The
statue is headless; we have given him a spangenhelm from
Egypt today preserved at Leiden Museum, correctly
reconstructed here with the original nasal guard. The
magnificent harness of his horse is taken from the Late Roman
horse trappings of the Ballana graves, contemporary to the
Dominate period.

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First Half of the 4th Century AD

(1) Cataphractarius Valerius Maxantius

Valerius is reconstructed after his funerary monument, which
describes him as an ‘eq(ues) ex numero kata(fractariorum)’. He
represents one of the heavy cavalrymen formerly serving
under Maxentius who, after Constantine’s victory, were sent to
patrol the north-eastern frontiers of the Empire. A strong
Sarmatian influence is visible in the scale armour, the padded
long-sleeved under-armour garment, and the boots, diffused
among the Roman cavalry since the 2nd century. His primary
weapon is the contus, but he also wears a long spatha of
Iranian origin, copied with its belt from the precious specimen
in the Újlak Bécsi út grave near Aquincum (Budapest) in
Pannonia. He carries a ridge-helmet of the new typology
introduced into the Roman Army during the Tetrarchy, and
wears a galericulum to absorb its weight and the force of
blows to the head.

(2) Centenarius Klaudianus Ingenuus of Numerus equitum
catafractariorum seniorum; Lugdunum, Gallia, c. AD
325−350?

This is copied from his stele, but its date is debatable, and
perhaps as late as the early 5th century. The hybrid pseudo-
Attic ridge-helmet with its high crest shows a red-orange
plume, which is confirmed for the late Roman heavy cavalry by
a later mosaic at Santa Maria Maggiore. The other metallic parts
of his equipment are the lorica squamata and greaves, which
are worn over leather protection and boots, respectively. On his
forearms note the decoration of his embroidered tunica
manicata, and his long cavalry sagum cloak has a fringed edge.
According to his gravestone his two calones (military servants)
had a javelin, a shield and a short sword.

(3) Draconarius of Numerus equitum catafractariorum
seniorum

The paintings in the Via Latina catacombs, contemporary to
the triumphal procession of Constantius II in Rome, are an
often-neglected source illustrating Roman cataphracts. They
show the use of old typologies of masked helmets, and the
wearing of the thorax stadios muscled cuirass (also attested
among the Persian Sassanid clibanarii, recalling traditional
links with the Greco-Roman world). Ammianus describes the
draco standards carried in Constantius’ procession (this one
copied from a specimen found at Carnuntum in Pannonia
Superior) as having shafts encrusted with precious stones: ‘he
was surrounded by dragons, woven out of purple thread and
bound to the golden and jewelled shafts of spears (dracones
hastarum aureis gemmatisque summitatibus inligati)’.

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Second Half of the 4th Century AD

(1) Catafractarius, battle of Argentoratum, AD 357

The heavy cavalrymen painted in the catacombs of Dino
Compagni (Via Latina), from which we reconstruct this mailed
rider, still show at the time of Constantius II and Julian the use
of old types of masked helmets with eagle protomes, of the
Heddernheim or (as here) Vechten types. Interestingly, this
man carries javelins with barbed heads, which are represented
on some stelae of catafractarii, like that of Klaudianus.
Catafractarii, in contrast to clibanarii, are often represented
with the wide shield of the scutarii.

(2) Clibanarius of Vexillatio equitum catafractariorum
clibanoriorum; Claudiopolis, c. AD 350

We are able to reconstruct quite a good image of richlyequipped
cataphractarii and clibanarii from iconography
together with descriptions in the sources (Pan. IV, 22; Amm.
Marc. XVI, 10, 8; Jul. Imp., Or. in Constantii Laudem, I, 37ff ). The
predilection of Constantius II for such troops is attested by the
numerous regiments raised by him, and quoted in his funerary
oration pronounced by Julian. The reconstruction is based
partially on the Dura Europos material, but note the ridgehelmet
prefiguring the famous 7th-century Sutton Hoo
Germanic specimen; this fits well with a description of
clibanarii wearing face-mask helmets (‘personati’). Claudian, in
his Panegyrics, describes the distinctions of the armoured
cavalrymen of the Imperial retinue: sashes around the waist,
peacock feathers on the helmet, and gilded and silvered
cuirasses and shoulder-guards. Iconography attests the use of
the old-style Roman ‘four-horn’ saddle at least into the first
half of the 5th century.

(3) Clibanarius of Schola scutariorum clibanariorum;
Constantinople, AD 380

For this man we have used a specimen of heavy cavalry
helmet of ridge type, and a blazon for his small shield copied
from the Notitia Dignitatum (in which the heavy cavalry’s use
of battle-axes is also attested). The striking appearance of the
clibanarius is noted by Claudian describing the army in
Constantinople on 27 November AD 395: ‘It is as though iron
statues moved, and men lived cast from that same metal’. On
that occasion he mentions plumed helmets (cristato vertice),
and armour of flexible scales or laminae fitted to the limbs
(conjuncta per artem flexilis inductis animatur lamina membris).

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The West, 5th Century AD

(1) Catafractarius of the Comites Alani; Mediolanum, Gallia, AD 430

The cavalryman is reconstructed from Romano-Sarmatian
archaeology in Gallia and northern Italia, also incorporating
elements from Pontic finds. These units served under the
Magister Militum in Italy, according to the Notitia Dignitatum,
which gives us their shield blazon. The man is armoured with
bronze squamae of Roman typology, and armed with the
contus and long Pontic sword; a specimen of the latter is
decorated in the cloisonné style of Constantinople fabrica.
Hidden here on the far side of his saddlery is a composite bow
and quiver of arrows. The Alani reportedly used the flayed
skins of their slain enemies to make horse trappers, and the
faces were hung from the horse’s antilena. This rider is using
the new type of nomad-style saddle with raised saddlebows
front and rear in place of the old four pommels.

(2) Clibanarius of Galla Placidia’s buccellarii, c. AD 425–450

Bucellarii were personal units raised by an individual rather
than the state; the politically active Galla Placidia was the
daughter of Theodosius I (r. 379–395), and acted as regent for
Valentinian III from 423 to 437. The cavalryman is largely
copied from the mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore. Besides a
cuirass of iron lamellae he wears an early example of ‘splint’
armour on his exposed right arm; similar armour has been
found in Abkhazian graves of the 5th century, where warriors
were buried with Eastern Roman military equipment. Such
specimens have long splints on the outer arm and shorter
ones partially covering the inside, over a leather support
fastened with buckles; below them and attached by two large
rings are hand-protectors of ringmail. Padded leg protection
of felt and coarse silk covers the legs down to the shoes,
fastened behind with laces and buckled straps.

(3) Clibanarius of Equites clibanarii; Cirta, AD 400

This trooper is equipped for training. A mosaic at Cirta
(Constantine, Algeria) shows cavalrymen of the Western
Empire training with javelins and riding caparisoned horses
(see Osprey Campaigns 84, Adrianople AD 378, p. 6:cool:. Man and
horse are protected with quilted armour of an organic
material, in the rider’s case probably corresponding to the
thoracomacus worn under the heavy armour of the clibanarius.
The vestitus equi of his mount may, by contrast, be actual war
gear, comparable to those represented on the lost Column of
Arcadius and Theodosius. If made with felt padding this kind
of caparison would give protection against low-velocity, longrange
missiles.

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The East, 5th Century AD

(1) Cataphractarius of Schola scutariorum secunda or
Schola armaturarum seniorum, AD 400

The fragments of the lost Column of Arcadius and Theodosius,
and the Renaissance-period Freshfields drawings of it, show the
lavish equipment of Eastern Roman cavalrymen of the Imperial
Guard. Shield blazons engraved on the Column pedestal
confirm the presence of the cavalry Scholae Palatinae and
Domestici Protectores on the battlefield, armoured with ‘muscle’
cuirasses in metal or leather, and laminated limb armour over
ringmail. Claudianus describes the Eastern Roman cataphracts
wearing helmets with peacock-feather plumes, and wide red
sashes around the body, as signs of their status or unit. Masked
helmets with human faces (personati) were still employed by
cavalrymen, often decorated in red leather; the Column shows
the use of both male and female masks. This last example in
Roman art of the use of masked helmets in battle is confirmed
by the almost contemporary specimen from Sisak. The written
sources also mention units of heavily armoured mounted
archers, anticipating the further evolution of the Roman heavy
cavalry in the 6th century.

(2) Catafractarius of the Equites catafractarii Albigenses, AD 400–425

This man is reconstructed from the grave of a cavalryman
found on a Balkan battlefield with all his armour. Besides a
ridge-helmet, he is protected by a ringmail lorikion, laminated
armour on his arms, and thigh protection above his greaves.
Apart from the contus, he is armed with a long spatha.

(3) Leontoclibanarius; Aegyptus, AD 450–500

This Egyptian cavalryman has a helmet of Romano-Sassanian
style, fitted with a mail hood aventail which leaves only the eyes
uncovered. He wears on his neck and upper breast an early
example of scale peritrachìlion, and below this his trunk is covered
with a combination of ringmail and scales recalling Iranian styles.
Again, his limbs are protected by articulated plates. His weapons
again include a battleaxe. Dtinsis (see Bibliography, under
Diethart) suggests that the unit’s symbol was a leonine motif
which the Notitia Dignitatum shows, perhaps on a small
cheiroskoutarion shield. The horse’s neck and forequarters only
are armoured partly with bronze scales and partly with padded
material (κέντουκλον). Note the chamfron in felt with metallic
appliqué, copied from a unique specimen in the Berlin Museum.

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Raffaele D'Amato is a source that should always be visited if you intend to look for information of this kind. Andrei Negin's artwork are great...within the OSPREY publications...one of the best.
This book is one of my favorites, I love Roman heavy cavalry.  :party:
 
Napoleon's Gendarmes d'Ordonnance:
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These were not Military Police like the other Gendarmes, but noblemen serving as man-at-arms (Gens d'armes). Napoleon hoped to attract support from the upper classes by raising such a unit, but they proved to be hard to control in battle (similarly to the British cavalry, actually) and caused the jealousy of the old Imperial Guard, many of whom were Revolutionary War veterans. Because of this, it proved to be a short-lived unit that only participated in the 1807 campaign.
 
Italo-Chalcidian Helmet, Etruscan, probably Vulci, late 5th–4th century B.C.
The Met, Fifth Avenue, Gallery 370 :arrow: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/748484

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